Literary Insights

“If you liked the book, you can purchase it using the links in the description below. By buying through these links, you contribute to the blog without paying any extra, as we receive a small commission. This helps us bring more quality content to you!”

BOOK LINK:

CLICK HERE

The author is a neurologist who has dedicated her career to understanding the brain and improving brain health.
Technology has advanced greatly over the past few decades. Smartphones have become ubiquitous and people now spend about 4 hours per day on screens, mainly smartphones. This accounts for 25% of waking time on average.
Smartphones and technology can benefit our lives when used properly, but they can also be a source of distraction and draining focus when overused.
The book aims to provide strategies to help optimize our brain health and maximize our potential, given how much time we now spend on screens/phones.
Rather than just treating brain disorders, the goal is to promote overall brain optimization through understanding how it works.
The book suggests our phones may have “taken over” as the biggest daily influence on our lives, so addressing phone use is crucial for brain health. The author provides practical solutions to help manage phone habits.
The author aims to provide a fresh perspective on digital technology and smartphone use by taking a balanced, evidence-based approach rather than fueling fear or panic.
The book is organized into three parts: 1) examining why phones feel addictive even if science says otherwise and introducing concepts like willpower and brain machinery; 2) exploring the science of habit formation and providing tools to reprogram digital habits; 3) addressing specific domains like focus, sleep, mental health and social media in relation to technology use.
The primary focus is on smartphones but the principles can apply more broadly to other digital interactions. Terms like “online world” and “virtual world” provide broader context beyond just phones.
The book draws on scientific studies but the author acknowledges science is messy - results may not replicate, different studies can disagree, and interpretation evolves over time. Simplicity is balanced with avoiding oversimplification.
Practical sections and tools are included to help readers create healthy digital habits and capitalize on new knowledge by making changes while reading rather than waiting. The goal is empowering readers with a mindset shift from helplessness to control.

In summary, the author aims to provide an evidence-based yet practical framework for understanding one’s relationship with digital technology in a balanced way, empowering readers to reprogram problematic habits and maximize benefits while avoiding downsides.

The passage argues that labeling phone or social media use as an “addiction” is misleading and exacerbates moral panic rather than providing helpful advice. True addiction involves severe negative consequences like those seen in drug addiction.

While phone use can be habit-forming, it does not affect the brain in the same way as addictive substances. The author reflects on treating a patient named Keira who sadly lost her life to drug addiction and infective endocarditis, highlighting how phone use pales in comparison to the dangers of substance abuse.

Moral panics arise from society’s natural fear of change and emerging technologies. Historically, new inventions like radios were also viewed with suspicion but later embraced. Overall, the author seeks to provide perspective rather than sensationalize phone use, acknowledging lives can be uniquely shaped and tools adapted individually. The relationship with devices is best managed long-term through moderation rather than rigid rules.

Here are some key lessons from the passage:

New technologies are often met with moral panic and fears of addiction/harm, but these fears are usually overblown and not supported by evidence. Previous technologies like the telephone, crossword puzzles, movies, comics, and video games were all initially seen as threats, but research did not find widespread negative effects.
Only a small minority (<1%) of people who play video games meet the criteria for internet gaming disorder, defined as completely forgoing basic needs like sleep/food to play games and suffering medical consequences. Most gamers experience no ill effects.
Playing video games can actually enhance well-being by providing psychological escape, similar to how use of any technology may serve useful purposes for coping or entertainment.
Labeling behaviors as “addictions” or pathologizing everyday activities like smartphone/social media use can stigmatize people and neglect underlying societal issues. Technologies are often used as coping mechanisms.
Overuse of phones/tech is usually a symptom of habits developed through repeated practice, not a true “addiction.” But habits can negatively impact areas like work/academics if they lead to constant distraction.
Screen time is a flawed metric and does not capture the quality or context of technology use. Work/communication uses versus mindless scrolling/checking have very different impacts. Habits are a better lens than time for understanding problematic tech behaviors.

So in summary, the lessons are that we should avoid moral panics, recognize the benefits as well as harms of tech, consider underlying motivations before pathologizing, understand habitual nature of behaviors, and focus on quality of use rather than quantity of time. A nuanced, evidence-based approach is needed.

The author argues against arbitrary screen time limits and obsessively tracking measures like many health and fitness apps promote. An obsession with measures can negatively impact well-being and lead to disordered behavior.
Instead, the author takes a balanced approach focusing on building good digital habits to use technology in a way that fulfills one’s individual purpose and well-being.
The key systems that govern our actions are the executive (located in the prefrontal cortex) and the autopilot (located in the basal ganglia). The executive makes decisions and plans for long-term goals, while the autopilot performs habits efficiently without much thought.
Habits start as executive decisions that are repeated until they become automated by the autopilot. This allows tasks to be performed with little concentration, freeing the executive for other tasks. Approximately 40% of daily actions are performed via habits.
The author advocates adopting a new mindset of using phones and technology in an enjoyable but balanced way, not letting digital habits overwhelm other areas of life. Learning about the executive and autopilot systems helps achieve this balance.
Habits form in our autopilot system through repetition. This allows actions to become intuitive and effortless, freeing up our executive brain for other tasks.
Our technology habits in particular shape how we use our time and focus our attention. Habits with phones and other screens can negatively impact sleep, exercise, hobbies, and social interaction if they interfere with these activities.
Some habits directly conflict with our goals, like mindless social media scrolling that prevents focus on important work. Others make tasks slightly easier in the moment but create more work later, like leaving dishes by the dishwasher instead of putting them away.
When we try to break unhelpful habits and establish new patterns, it is mentally exhausting for the executive brain to maintain ongoing effort and discipline. We tend to revert back to our default autopilot habits.
The next chapter will discuss why habit change is challenging and how our “executive battery” impacts willpower and self-control over recurring actions stored in the autopilot system. Repetition is needed to overwrite old habits and form new ones.

The passage discusses how willpower relies on the executive function of the brain located behind the forehead. It notes how Phineas Gage’s infamous 1848 accident, where an iron bar pierced his brain in that area, changed his personality by reducing his self-control and impulse regulation.

It argues that willpower should not be seen as something people either have or lack. Instead, executive function and willpower fluctuate based on factors like sleep, hunger, stress levels, focus demands, and emotion regulation needs. When depleted through cognitive or emotional fatigue, the “executive battery” runs low, making difficult tasks feel impossible.

Good sleep is the most effective way to recharge this battery and restore willpower. Taking breaks that provide enjoyable escapism without significant cognitive load can also prevent excessive depletion. While individual differences exist, effectively managing one’s executive resources is key to sustainable self-control and motivation.

The brain has limited executive resources that can become fatigued through overuse. It enters a “low power mode” when executive resources become depleted from stress, lack of sleep, or continuous mental demands without breaks.
In low power mode, the brain prioritizes short-term decisions and habits over long-term planning. Emotion regulation and stress resilience are reduced. Minor irritations can provoke stronger reactions.
Reaching for devices provides an easy, distracting activity when in low power mode. However, this habit formation means digital activities are more likely to encroach on other tasks as the brain considers them routine.
Low power mode sets in over hours of sustained mental demands, not minutes. Repeatedly entering this state through overuse and poor charging (e.g. lack of sleep, breaks) can lead to chronic executive dysfunction and reliance on immediate rewards and routines like device use.
The passage discusses how habits can either drain or preserve our limited willpower/executive function resource. Developing “supportive” habits that align with our goals can reduce the strain on our executive function, while “contradictory” habits that conflict with our goals are a constant drain.
Repeatedly resisting draining habits can lead to a depletion of willpower and entering a state of “low power mode,” making it harder to resist developing further negative habits and trapping us in a cycle.
Simple strategies like using the “five-minute rule” (delaying the urge to check our phone by waiting five minutes) can help engage the executive function and disrupt automatic/draining habits.
Broader societal expectations that overtax people mentally and lead to chronic depletion of executive function resources also need to be addressed to help support positive individual-level changes. Strategies in the book aim to equip the reader to start improving habits even when mentally fatigued.
Habit formation techniques like pre-commitment and willpower strategies may seem effective, but they require sustained willpower over time which can be difficult to maintain, especially during periods of low mental energy. Unless the habit is well established, people are prone to lapse back into old behaviors when willpower is low.
It’s important to start small by identifying specific situations where the strategy would be helpful, rather than trying to implement it at all times.
If there is a valid reason to check your phone, add it to a to-do list rather than acting on impulse in the moment.
Cravings and urges tend to peak quickly and then dissipate over time, rather than continually increasing. The “surf the urge” technique involves mindfully observing urges without acting on them in order to ride them out.
Having a “Plan B” of less demanding but still productive tasks can help avoid defaulting back to unproductive behaviors (“Plan 0”) during periods of low mental energy when “Plan A” goals are too difficult.
Inserting hurdles like placing the phone out of reach or requiring logins/authentication helps disrupt automatic behaviors and activate more intentional decision making by creating pauses for reflection.
Using periods of high willpower to implement strategies and commitments (“pre-commitments”) for how to respond to future challenges or triggers can help bolster willpower reserves when they are low.
Changing phone habits is difficult because they reside in the autopilot part of the brain, not the conscious executive function. Trying to exert rigid control through willpower alone is unsustainable.
“Digital detoxes” of completely abstaining from technology for a period of time are ineffective for creating long-term change. They don’t teach new supportive habits and people often return to old patterns.
Habits are formed from repeated daily actions, not infrequent events. The goal should be slowly incorporating new habits into daily routines.
Making changes requires understanding the four elements of habits: the cue (trigger), routine (behavior), reward, and belief. Reprogramming habits means altering one or more of these elements over time through small, incremental changes that feel easy to sustain.
Ambition should not be confused with impatience. Small, gradual changes built upon each other are more effective for creating long-lasting new habits compared to dramatic overhauls.

The key points are that digital habits are ingrained and difficult to change through willpower alone; new supportive habits need to replace old ones through consistent small steps, not brief periods of abstinence; and understanding the framework of habits helps target which elements to modify.

The passage discusses how habits are formed based on cues or “reminders” in our environment. It introduces the concept of the “Habit Puzzle,” which has four key pieces: Reminder, Really Small Action, Reward, and Repetition.

Reminders can be external cues in the environment, like a location, sound, or smell that triggers a memory or habit. Our brains form associations between cues and physical actions. Location is a powerful reminder that can automatically prompt habits.

The passage uses examples to illustrate how location-based reminders trigger habits. One example describes how music triggered vivid memories for the author. Another experiment showed that students ate more popcorn when in a familiar movie theater setting compared to a conference room, showing how environment cues habits.

Phone habits are uniquely suited to forming because phones provide abundant reminders, small convenient actions, rewards from use, and high repetition of use throughout the day. To change habits, the four pieces of the puzzle must be addressed, starting with understanding external reminders and how the environment triggers autopilot behaviors.

Location and time act as powerful external reminders that can trigger habitual behaviors stored in our autopilot brain. Being in a certain location or at a certain time of day prompts us to engage in habits without conscious effort.
The advent of smartphones removed the location restrictions of habits formed by computers/internet. Phones can be taken everywhere, providing multiple reminders that reinforce habit formation. Notifications, sounds, app icons all act as phone-specific reminders.
Instagram exploited this by starting as an exclusively mobile app. This allowed habits to form without location restrictions, helping it grow rapidly despite limited desktop access initially.
However, studies show most phone habit triggers are not actually notifications. Internal states like boredom or frustration become linked to phone checking through repetition. Habits become stealthy and automatic.
Simply turning off notifications may help a little but won’t address unconsciously triggered habits linked to our internal emotional experiences. Reducing overall phone checking situations is needed to weaken the web of reminders driving autopilot behavior.
Notifications alone are not the main driver of excessive smartphone use, as habit formation plays a strong role through internal and external triggers.
Apps are designed with many initiating triggers to pick up the phone but few stopping triggers to put it down, allowing endless scrolling/watching.
Strategies like the 5-Minute Rule can create pauses between habit triggers and responses to disrupt automatic patterns and give alternative coping mechanisms a chance.
Context, including location, mood, and time of day, influences which habits are cued. Small context changes can shift behavior even with the same app.
Reintroducing stopping triggers like disabling autoplay or using timers can help regain control over habits by empowering deliberate decision making over automatic responses. Consistently applying strategies like the 5-Minute Rule supports developing healthier habits over time.
Our habits are largely driven by unconscious, automatic processes in the brain’s autopilot system. While our executive brain can override habits, it often does not as habits operate subconsciously.
Our habits change depending on context, like differing routines on work versus non-work days. Major life changes like moving or having a child significantly disrupt routines and habits as the context changes dramatically.
The COVID-19 pandemic was an unprecedented context change that altered habits on a global scale. Lockdowns disrupted daily routines and increased cues for technology habits while reducing cues for non-digital activities. This, combined with pandemic stress and uncertainty, strengthened digital habits for many.
Instagram noticed users feeling pressure to curate perfect feeds, discouraging casual posting. They wanted to make sharing photos again a “really small action” to encourage more frequent, spontaenous posting and increase user engagement.
While large life decisions require planning, habitual behaviors are driven by unconscious “really small actions.” Targeting these small behaviors is an effective way to build or change habits at scale without much conscious effort.
Habits are formed from small, automatic actions stored in the autopilot brain. Even complex tasks like cooking involve chains of small habitual actions.
Technology is designed to make actions as small and effortless as possible to form habits. Examples include one-click access on phones/apps and short video formats that require less effort.
Small actions on social media like Instagram stories and TikTok videos form frequent habits of chronicling daily life. Platforms copy each other’s smallest meaningful actions.
Low power states encourage the autopilot brain to pick habitual digital options over equivalent non-digital tasks requiring more thought. Forming many digital habits shifts this balance.
Small actions can trigger chains or “dominoes” of subsequent actions through associative habits. Neurological exams form habits this way, freeing the examiner’s conscious thinking for other tasks. Maintaining non-habitual sequences requires more executive function.

The passage discusses how small actions on our phones can trigger a “domino effect” of repeated behaviors. Picking up one’s phone often leads to checking various apps in the same habitual order. Within each app, actions like checking for notifications or scrolling a feed become automated routines.

This forms a “digital distraction cycle” that is difficult to interrupt once it starts. The small actions reinforce each other and repeat unknowingly. While one’s original intention was a quick check, the cycle of automated behaviors can consume a significant amount of time without noticing.

The domino effect amplifies the power of small actions over time. Even slightly different initial actions, like making one’s bed or putting on workout clothes, can set off different productive or unproductive routines. Picking up the phone regularly puts us in a position where automated unproductive scrolling is the likely outcome.

Therefore, while technology and phones have valid uses, we must be aware of how unnoticed small actions in apps can unintentionally form unbalanced digital habits over long periods of time through the domino effect. Mindfully inserting obstacles in automated cycles can help disrupt them.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter in the brain that plays a key role in reward, motivation and learning.
When we receive an unexpected reward, dopamine spikes provide a strong learning signal, associating our actions with cues in the environment. This helps encode habits.
Once a cue (like a light) is learned to predict a reward (like fruit juice), dopamine begins surging in anticipation of the reward, motivating us to obtain it.
Digital devices provide many unpredictable rewards like likes, comments and notifications. This dopamine response strongly motivates engagement with phones and makes digital habits difficult to manage.
Phones also act as rewards in themselves by providing escape from difficult tasks or boredom with little effort. This further drives dopamine-fueled motivation to use them frequently.
The ubiquitous reminders associated with phones trigger anticipatory dopamine even before use, lowering the mental effort needed to override automatic impulses to check devices.

So in summary, dopamine plays a key role in both learning habits and motivating behavior to obtain rewards. This helps explain why digital habits form strongly and are challenging to regulate.

Social media and other apps/websites are deliberately designed to trigger dopamine release in the brain through unexpected rewards. Things like getting a “like” or comment can trigger this reward response.
This intermittent reward structure is highly effective at forming habits and getting people to continue engaging with the platform in hopes of another reward. Even if the frequency of rewards drops off, the desire to check remains.
Algorithms that personalize content and prioritize engaging posts optimize this intermittent reward system. They make it more likely users will encounter rewarding content each time they engage.
Features like the unpredictability of going viral on TikTok made posting highly rewarding and drove rapid adoption of the platform.
However, dopamine is a complex neurotransmitter involved in many important functions beyond just pleasure or reward. Labeling phone/app use as just dopamine “hits” oversimplifies its role. Its drive to seek rewards is important for learning, motivation and survival.
While tech design capitalizes on dopamine, it is not inherently bad or akin to a drug. Understanding dopamine’s full role is important for managing our relationships with technology.

Dopamine plays an important role in driving our motivation and habits. However, too much artificial dopamine from drugs can lead to addiction by overpowering the brain’s self-control mechanisms. Technology is designed to be habit-forming by providing immediate rewards through notifications, likes, etc. But it does not involve addictive substances.

A factor called “delay discounting” means our brain discounts the value of distant rewards compared to immediate ones. This makes us prioritize checking our phones for quick dopamine hits over achieving long-term goals. Short-term rewards can still be effective for building habits if they are used to gradually get us engaged in behaviors with long-term benefits.

The key is regulating our technology use so that most of our time spent is intentional rather than unintended. Some people enjoy binge watching shows intentionally as a hobby, whereas others struggle to control how much unintended time they spend binge watching. Regaining control over our digital habits is important to reduce potential problems from unregulated technology use.

Repetition is the final and pivotal piece of forming a habit according to the habit puzzle model. It builds and strengthens the neural connections in the brain to automate behaviors.
Through repetition, the synapses (connections between neurons) become remodeled through a process called synaptic plasticity. Connections grow stronger with use and weaker with disuse.
Novice behaviors require conscious effort but become automatic through repetition. Brain scans show increased activation of the habit/autopilot areas of the brain after repeated practice of a task.
The maxim “neurons that fire together, wire together” describes how habits are formed - repeated activation of the same neural circuits forms habit pathways in the brain.
Single actions have little impact but repetition transforms them into habits through this neural remodeling and synaptic strengthening process in the habit/autopilot areas of the brain.

So in summary, repetition is key to automatizing behaviors by physically changing the brain’s structure through synaptic plasticity and reinforcement of neural pathways, allowing behaviors to transition from conscious to automatic.

Engaging the autopilot brain takes over some or all of the mental strain of a task, making it less fatiguing. With repetition, actions rely less on the executive brain and more on the autopilot.
Technology encourages repetition through features like notifications, streaks, achievements, etc. Frequent repetition is key to forming habits, and tech designs exploit this to encourage engagement.
There is no set number of days to form a habit - it depends on the individual habit and how well it satisfies the habit loop ( cues, routine, reward). Tech habits form quickly due to high repetition of small actions that are heavily rewarded.
The initial motivation to form a new habit often declines before it’s fully established. Taking very small actions can help bridge this gap and allow the habit to cement through repeated activation of the autopilot brain.
Once a habit is engrained through repetition, the initial reward becomes less important. The habit can continue automatically without conscious effort or external motivation.
The study found that even when popcorn was stale, people who had a strong habit of eating popcorn in movie theaters still ate it, showing how habits can persist due to reward insensitivity.
Repeatedly engaging in the same rewarding behavior causes the reward to lose its novelty over time. People then continue the habit more to avoid the disappointment of missing out than for the reward itself.
This happens with phone checks - the intervals are too short for anything to happen, but people feel disappointed if they don’t check due to the established habit. This can lead to frequent checking out of frustration.
Unlike predictable snacks, phone rewards are unpredictable, keeping people motivated to check just in case of a good reward. However, this good reward seldom materializes.
Building long-term rewarding habits and regulating short-term habit checking can counteract this cycle and provide more satisfaction. Replacing habit checking with intentional rewarding activities also helps.
Undoing habits takes time - replacing the old habit with a new one through strengthening an alternative habit path is more effective than trying to directly break the old habit. The alternative should fulfill a similar need as the old habit.

Here is a summary of the key points about reprogramming one’s digital habits and autopilot mode:

Break down existing problematic digital habits by understanding the “habit puzzle” of cues, routine, and rewards. Remove or reduce cues like location-based reminders that trigger unwanted habits.
Form new supportive habits by establishing location-based rules for phone activities and choosing locations to foster focus, relaxation, etc.
Add hurdles like moving apps on the home screen or muting notifications to make unwanted habits less automatic.
Add consequences like making certain phone checks require additional tasks to reduce their rewarding nature and make them less appealing.
Maximize the power of anticipation by savoring upcoming rewards rather than constant minor rewards from habitual phone checks.
Apply the 80/20 rule to moderate digital rewards - most value comes from 20% of effort/interactions.
Start a “really small habit” aligned with your goals, making it simple enough to do with low willpower. Leverage reminders and repetition to strengthen the new habit.

The overall approach is to break automated problem habits and thoughtfully form supportive ones through techniques like managing cues, locations, rewards and the formation of new “really small” behaviors.

Here is a summary of the key points about forming really small habits from focusing on nutrients:

Really small habits are actions that require little to no motivation and willpower to perform, making them easy to do consistently. This consistency is important for forming habits.
Small actions like exercising for just 5 minutes or reading a few pages activate the brain’s habit formation processes similar to larger actions, even if you don’t continue past 5 minutes. Repeating these small actions lays the foundation for lasting habits over time.
Use strategies like the “five-minute rule” to make behaviors more manageable and break through initial resistance or inertia. Starting is the hardest part.
Replace problematic phone habits with new really small substitute habits that satisfy similar needs on a minimal effort basis.
Add hurdles that require doing a small action before engaging in phone use to curb mindless checking.
Use temptation bundling to link habit activities to immediate rewards to increase their rewarding nature and speed up habit formation.
Track small habit repetitions to maintain motivation and see incremental progress over time in filling progress trackers or habit calendars. Consistency is more important than intensity.
Problem-solve setbacks by analyzing why they happen without judgment and adjusting strategies, as temporary setbacks don’t undermine long-term habit formation.
Getting focused and avoiding distraction from technology takes effort, as our brains are drawn to quick rewards like checking phones or social media.
Most people don’t instantly focus when starting work - it takes time to get into a “focused state.” Procrastination habits emerge as people digitally check emails/news before feeling ready to work.
Short-term thinking leads to prioritizing immediate gratification over long-term goals. Deadlines help reduce this by providing short-term rewards to look forward to.
Starting challenging tasks induces discomfort our brains want to avoid, making procrastination likely for activities like studying, exercising, housework, difficult conversations, or projects we fear failing at.
The perceived effort of a task is disproportionate to the actual effort - starting is hardest, but momentum makes continuing easier. The five-minute rule of committing to just five minutes of work can help substitute procrastination habits by getting past the initial hurdle.
The passage discusses strategies for managing interruptions and self-interruptions that impede focus. Both external interruptions from notifications and internal self-interruptions are problematic.
Self-interruptions occur nearly as frequently as external interruptions but are less noticed as we act on autopilot. They become habitual over time through reminders and cues.
When an external interruption occurs, it can increase likelihood of later self-interruptions by fatiguing our executive control.
To reduce self-interruptions, we can insert hurdles to disrupt automatic habits and use the 5-minute rule to test if an urge is true need or autopilot response. Brief task shifts may help a fatigued executive.
“Faux breaks” like checking emails don’t truly rest the executive. Strategic breaks use the autopilot for short rewards to temporarily rest the executive, like pausing between exercise sets. Proper breaks require differentiating work and non-work.

The key themes are how interruptions, both external and internal, disrupt focus and become habitual, plus strategies to manage interruptions, reduce self-interruptions, and take effective breaks that rest the exhausted executive brain.

Taking intentional breaks is important for recharging mentally, but distractions like social media may actually drain energy by requiring emotion regulation. It’s better to choose relaxing digital or non-digital activities for breaks.
Frequent self-interruptions from tasks are counterproductive as they prevent deep focus and reduce efficiency. It’s better to take meaningful breaks instead of getting distracted.
Changing locations, even within the same room, can help create a separation between work and break areas to control reminders from the environment.
Unrealistic expectations to work for long periods without breaks lead to more self-interruptions. It’s better to schedule focused periods and active stopping times to avoid low energy states.
True multitasking doesn’t exist - the brain quickly switches attention between tasks. This is mentally draining and reduces efficiency compared to focusing on one task at a time.
Media multitasking in particular has been shown to increase distractibility, as heavy media multitaskers perform worse on attention tests. Perceptions of multitasking ability are inflated.
Chronic multitaskers may do so due to lower executive function and impulse control, rather than intentionally. It’s better to focus on tasks sequentially for better performance.
Early studies on media multitasking show it can undermine performance and distractibility, whether distractibility causes multitasking or vice versa. We should reflect on our own behaviors - are we deliberately multitasking or unable to avoid distractions?
Effective multitasking only works if one task is simple/automatic. Complex tasks require full focus. Habitual tasks like walking can be automatic, but new tasks require more attention.
Processing information always involves the executive brain and cannot be done automatically through multitasking. Trying to do multiple complex/information processing tasks inhibits performance.
Our “default mode network” is active when the mind wanders. It allows novel connections and problem solving during downtime. Constant consumption inhibits this network and creative thinking.
Technology provides useful tools if used correctly, but is often a distraction and blurs work-life boundaries. Constant checking emails and notifications leads to rushed, fragmented responses rather than focused attention. We should recognize technology’s limitations.
The constant availability of email and technology blurs the boundaries between work and personal life. Even the knowledge that you could be interrupted at any time reduces one’s ability to fully focus.
Studies show that putting your phone in another room while doing a task allows people to solve problems better than having the phone near them. This is because the brain still devotes resources to monitoring the phone even when there are no notifications.
Cutting off email entirely led employees to focus more on their work, but further investigation showed the real issue was how people were using email - it created unnecessary extra tasks and interruptions.
Technology allows us to fit more work into short periods of time, like commutes. But this extra work added to people’s feelings of being overwhelmed without providing additional breaks.
Constant pressure to be productive has become a cause of distractibility due to executive fatigue. Checking phones provides an easy temporary escape from difficult tasks.
Completely cutting off technology access is not practical or sustainable. Instead, we need to develop wise technology habits and recognize the wider societal pressures that reduce focus and increase workload.
Admin tasks can be grouped into dedicated “admin blocks” on days with many interruptions like meetings. This provides a space to slot in minor tasks without self-interrupting focused work.
Developing executive focus takes consistency through really small habits like starting with just 15 minutes of focused time each day. Consistency over time builds stamina more than one-off large efforts.
Taking adequate breaks is important to avoid poor form that doesn’t increase strength. Starting tasks requires more energy than continuing, so using strategies like 5-minute timers can help overcome procrastination.
If deep focus is difficult, execute a “Plan B” like admin tasks instead of reinforcing procrastination. Convert distant deadlines into immediate, artificial ones to motivate focus.
Include rituals before and after work like warming up or winding down to prepare the mind and establish boundaries between work and non-work. Manage interruptions through limiting notifications, batching checks, and communicating busy periods.
Maximize breaks by choosing recharging activities, timing them with artificial deadlines, going outdoors, and making breaks intentional with no guilt rather than waiting until exhaustion.
Sleep is essential for memory, learning, focus and cognitive abilities. It is a time when the brain performs maintenance, not a luxury, and should be carefully managed.
Sleep is crucial for memory consolidation, allowing memories to be transferred from the hippocampus to long-term storage in the brain.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus, or “master clock”, controls our circadian rhythm and releases hormones like cortisol and melatonin to regulate alertness and sleepiness over a 24-hour cycle.
Genetics determine our innate “chronotype” - whether we are naturally a “morning lark” or “night owl.” Age also affects our chronotype.
Light is a major influence on the master clock. Daylight provides a much higher dose than indoor light. Morning light shifts our cycle forward, evening light shifts it back.
The light-sensitive photoreceptors in our eyes respond more strongly to shorter wavelengths like blue light. Device screens emit high levels of blue light, which can suppress melatonin production and disrupt sleep schedules.
Both the dose and timing of light exposure are important for synchronizing our circadian rhythm and master clock with the external environment.
The story that blue light from screens strongly impacts sleep is an oversimplification. Studies showing effects have been done on nocturnal mice, not humans who are diurnal.
Human studies show small effects, like a 10 minute delay in sleep onset when reading on an e-reader vs paper before bed. Total sleep time was unchanged.
More light exposure is needed to significantly suppress melatonin, and effects are small and short-lived when they do occur.
Night modes, blue light filtering, and blue blocking glasses likely have minimal effects, as natural light exposure is a bigger factor.
Lack of daylight exposure during indoor workdays and artificial home lighting disrupt circadian rhythms more than screen use before bed.
The main issue isn’t blue light itself but modern lifestyles with indoor environments providing low light levels during the day and higher artificial light at night.
While screen use may delay bedtimes in some cases, true sleep issues stem more from disrupted circadian rhythms due to lack of natural light exposure during waking hours. Addressing this is key to good sleep.
Bedtime procrastination involves delaying sleep even though there are no valid reasons to do so and it will negatively impact how one feels the next day.
It arises due to a conflict between the autopilot brain and executive brain. When the executive brain is tired at the end of the day, the autopilot takes over and prefers instant gratification over considering future consequences.
Factors like low self-control, difficult days requiring “me time,” and habit formation can contribute to sleep procrastination.
Stressful, anxiety-inducing, or engaging social media content viewed on phones before bed triggers the stress hormone cortisol and increases alertness, making it harder to fall asleep.
Getting absorbed in phones, books, or other activities before bed also increases alertness and delays sleep onset. Phones may be particularly problematic due to the large amount of stimulating content.
Night owls and teenagers are more susceptible to sleep procrastination due to their natural later chronotypes. Phones can exacerbate delays in their sleep schedules.
Digital devices have become associated with relaxation and preparing for sleep through routines, so blanket bans on phone use before bed can be difficult to follow.
Using smartphones and other devices passively in the evening for low-effort activities like games or watching videos can help the exhausted brain relax and recover from the day by engaging the executive functions little. This is similar to how reading can aid falling asleep.
However, devices can also lead to sleep procrastination, negatively impacting both sleep duration and quality. Some people also use devices for psychological detachment from work stresses, which research has shown can have benefits if done mindfully.
The key is not banning devices completely but using them mindfully by choosing relaxing content and setting boundaries around more stimulating content close to bedtime. Through trial and error, people can develop their own guidelines for mindful device use in the evenings and bedrooms.
Getting out of bed immediately in the morning, rather than scrolling on devices, helps align the body’s circadian rhythms and sleep-wake cycle. This is because early morning light exposure is crucial for regulating hormones like cortisol that influence alertness and mood. Erratic sleep patterns can disrupt these natural rhythms.

So in summary, mindful and minimal evening device use may aid relaxation, but early morning light exposure and regular sleep-wake cycles are important for quality sleep and circadian health. The goal is finding a balanced approach.

Smartphones can disrupt sleep quality through stressful content and bedtime procrastination, exacerbating problematic early morning scroll habits due to executive fatigue from poor sleep.
However, smartphones alone do not cause sleep issues - they are one of many contributing factors. Natural light, wake/sleep times, and caffeine consumption also affect sleep quality and the body’s circadian rhythms.
To optimize the circadian system (also called the “master clock”): establish consistent wake/sleep schedules; use morning light exposure to advance the clock; limit light in the evenings to delay the clock if needed.
Natural daylight is best for circadian entrainment, but light therapy boxes can help. At least 30-60 minutes of outdoor light is recommended daily, even on cloudy days, with sunglasses avoided.
Caffeine intake should be mindful and end 8-13 hours before bed depending on amount, as it blocks receptors but still allows adenosine buildup, reducing sleep quality and perpetuating cycles of poor sleep and problematic habits.

The summary focuses on how various factors like smartphones, light, schedules and caffeine can interact with the circadian system and sleep quality, exacerbating early morning scrolling patterns or providing strategies to optimize the circadian rhythms and break unhelpful cycles.

Using smartphones strategically, such as only drinking caffeine when needed to boost energy, rather than out of habit, can help manage caffeine intake levels. Switching to decaffeinated drinks in the afternoon also helps reduce caffeine levels.
Making bedtime activities rewarding, like relaxing baths or reading enjoyable books only at night, can help tackle bedtime procrastination. Taking breaks during the day to recharge mentally also helps avoid procrastinating at night. Mindfulness before bed can be beneficial.
Adding non-tech activities to wind down routines, like scents, journalling, hot showers, creates more sleep associations than depending on devices.
At bedtime, using blue light filters, avoiding stressful content, and picking finite passive activities over open-ended active ones helps phones not disrupt sleep. Notifications should be turned off.
Delaying morning phone use by 5 minutes each day and getting natural light helps break the early scroll habit. Setting timers and reducing screen time works too. Substitute morning phone time with other activities like journalling.
Pre-committing to moving phones away from the bed prevents morning phone use. Rewards like leisurely breakfasts can reinforce new routines. Perseverance is needed as new habits take time.
The amygdala is the emotional center of the brain that activates during emotional situations. It has an important protective function but can lead to irrational reactions if not regulated.
The prefrontal cortex is the executive center that applies rational thinking and regulates emotions using self-control. However, it can become depleted from constantly regulating emotions.
When depleted, people are more likely to act on emotions rather than reasoning. They may feel irritable or lose temper more easily.
Sharing problems with others (“external regulation”) can help regulate emotions through comfort and support.
Children rely more on external regulation from parents as their prefrontal cortex develops later.
Technology can provide “digital emotion regulation” through distraction, humorous videos, social connection, and escapism via games/videos. This helps temporarily regulate emotions.
Digital regulation may explain teenagers’ phone use as they learn independent emotion management during adolescence. It was also shown to effectively reduce pain in military medical procedures.

The key points are about the brain centers involved in emotions and regulation, how depletion impacts regulation, and how technology can serve as an external regulator of emotions.

Playing a game helped soldiers cope with pain from medical procedures by regulating the emotional component of pain in the brain. Emotion regulation plays an important role in mental health.
Different strategies work for different people, so there is no single set of rules. It’s important not to become overly dependent on digital emotion regulation and strengthen internal coping mechanisms as well.
Mindfulness meditation is an effective way to build internal emotion regulation skills by paying attention to the present moment non-judgmentally. It makes the brain less reactive to emotions over time.
Physical activity is also beneficial as it reduces stress through distraction and endorphins while improving sleep, which recharges executive function. Spending time in nature amplifies these benefits.
Small amounts of meditation and movement are still worthwhile. Incorporating them builds internal skills and “really small habits” to break problematic phone habits.
During high stress, use breathing exercises, journaling, or pairing digital and non-digital strategies to process emotions without relying solely on phones.
Digital emotion regulation is generally suitable when a situation will resolve with time passing, but an active problem requires different coping approaches. It should not delay recovery from illness or problems requiring attention. Over-reliance can become problematic.
Digital habits can both help cope with stress by connecting us to social support, but can also be a source of stress themselves through constant connectivity expectations and exposure to upsetting online content.
Chronic stress from digital overload dysregulates cortisol levels, affecting key brain areas like the executive function (concentration), hippocampus (memory), and amygdala (emotion regulation). This makes it harder to cope with stressors.
Constant online vigilance and checking emails/social media depletes limited cognitive resources and makes it difficult to be present. This constant drain contributes to feeling overwhelmed.
Screen time itself is often a symptom of underlying stress or mental health issues like anxiety/depression, not necessarily a cause. Association studies don’t prove causation. More research is needed on digital habits and mental well-being.
To manage digital stress, it’s important to evaluate habits like preoccupation with online metrics/emails that may be increasing anxiety, and set limits on exposure to upsetting news/content through moderation of online time.
Studies have found associations between things like phone use and mental health problems, but cannot determine causation. Increased phone use could cause issues, issues could lead to more phone use, or there may be another underlying factor causing both.
Longitudinal studies that track people over time are needed to better understand cause and effect, but they are difficult and expensive to conduct compared to cross-sectional studies.
The longest longitudinal study to date on social media and mental health followed 500 people aged 13-20 for 8 years. It found no evidence that increased social media use leads to increased depression or anxiety when monitored over time.
Associations seen in cross-sectional studies could mislead if used to draw conclusions without the insight of longitudinal data.
Mental health issues likely have many complex and interrelated causes, including life stressors, genetics, physical and social environment factors. Technological factors are an oversimplification and unlikely to be a primary cause on their own.
Increased diagnosis rates also reflect greater awareness and understanding of mental health reducing stigma around help-seeking.

So in summary, while phone/technology use associations are observed, causation is difficult to determine and issues are probably influenced much more by multiple other life factors than technology alone based on current evidence.

The researchers employed a pre-registered analysis method to prevent cherry-picking data that supports a predetermined narrative. This helps address issues that have affected many studies on smartphone use.
Their analysis found that technology use accounts for only 0.4% variation in well-being. This correlation does not prove causation. Other factors like binge drinking, smoking, bullying had much stronger correlations.
A large study of nearly 1 million Facebook users over 12 years found no evidence linking social media adoption to psychological harm. This counters media narratives blaming social media for mental health issues.
Negative media coverage about phones and mental health can impact us through placebo/nocebo effects even if studies find little correlation. Our expectations influence our brain and experiences.
Worrying excessively about phone use becoming a “toxic” issue can activate stress responses and become a self-fulfilling prophecy, counterproductively impacting mental health.
The relationship with phones is likely overemphasized as an issue compared to other more significant factors impacting mental health. A balanced, knowledge-based perspective is needed rather than fear-mongering rhetoric.
Social media has become an inextricable part of modern life, though it also poses challenges for our cognitive processes and mental well-being.
Our brains selectively focus on information based on relevance and emotional significance. Algorithms amplify content we engage with, but this can exacerbate vulnerabilities if it skews our perceptions.
Conditions like depression, anxiety, or trauma can alter how the emotional brain functions, strengthening negative biases in memory and attention. Algorithms may then disproportionately show negatively skewed content.
Issues like body image insecurity can also be amplified if algorithms primarily show idealized images to those with existing distortions, creating a misleading digital reality.
Rather than time spent, it is the type of content we’re exposed to via social media that most influences us - idealized content vs funny videos, for example.

The key challenge is navigating social media in a balanced, healthy way by understanding how our brains and algorithms interact, and employing strategies to manage vulnerabilities and build productive digital habits. An all-or-nothing approach is unrealistic and disempowering.

Hashtags like #thinspiration and #fitspiration that promote an idealized body image have been linked to unhealthy behaviors like restricted eating and excessive exercise.
Editing photos on social media and relying on filters can exacerbate body image issues for both viewers and creators by reinforcing unrealistic standards.
However, social media is also reflecting broader societal influences and issues around body image that predate platforms. Unattainable beauty standards have long been promoted in traditional media as well.
Some newer hashtags and body-positive content on social media are helping to promote body acceptance and combat unrealistic ideals. This grassroots content is having a positive impact on how people view their own bodies.
Social media amplifies both problematic aspects of society and activism working to create positive change. The negative effects tend to get more attention, despite benefits also existing.
Comparisons are natural human behaviors, but those with a high tendency to compare themselves to others on social media may be more vulnerable to negative impacts on self-esteem. The overall impact of social media on self-esteem is small or negligible for most people.

In summary, while social media can exacerbate body image and mental health issues for some through comparisons and idealized content, it also reflects broader societal influences and is helping advance body acceptance movements. The impact varies significantly between individuals.

Lateral comparisons with people in similar life situations can help us feel less alone and provide insight and support. Many patients find comfort connecting with others dealing with the same health condition.
Upward comparisons with perceived superiors can trigger negative feelings like envy or inadequacy. But for some people, they can also inspire self-improvement by identifying strengths and areas for growth. Downward comparisons aim to boost self-esteem but don’t provide lasting benefits and can discourage personal development.
Frequent appearance comparisons are linked to body dissatisfaction. Social media presents an unfair landscape as we only see curated highlights, intensifying comparisons during low moods.
It’s important to develop balanced habits, shift to lateral comparisons, and choose inspiring rather than detrimental content and profiles to follow. Offline comparisons also occur and stable self-worth depends less on others.
Studies on quitting social media show no clear benefits to well-being or mood. Intentional, mindful use avoiding overuse is healthier than complete avoidance. Setting boundaries through supportive habits allows social benefits while regulating potential negatives. Complete breaks don’t necessarily build better habits long-term.
Instead of many mindless, brief social media checks, it is better to plan a limited number of intentional checks per day. This leverages anticipatory dopamine and fosters a sustainable habit pattern.
The way you engage with content on social media, whether actively posting/commenting or passively browsing, is less important than whether it aligns with your goals and fuels distraction.
Short, unfulfilling checks where you skim without real engagement provide little value and can be fatiguing. Taking longer breaks for more meaningful interaction enhances the experience.
Purposefully curating your social media feed based on your interests and goals makes time spent on platforms more productive and fulfilling.
Both internal rewards like creativity and external rewards like likes can be motivators, but overreliance on unpredictable external validation from metrics can fuel problematic refreshing habits after posting content.
Limiting habitual, compulsive refreshing is important to avoid disappointment from not receiving expected rewards and make social media use more enjoyable and balanced.
Establised habits of disproportionately monitoring social media metrics like likes and comments can feel like wasted time and increase digital stress. Constant short checks become intrusive.
It’s important to recognize external rewards on social media are often based on luck and can be inconsistent. Develop internal motivations for posting instead.
Having a strong sense of purpose in life can act as a protective factor against being too influenced by social media validation.
Consider developing your own reward system based on effort rather than results to reduce reliance on external validation. This cultivates more intentional posting habits.
Suggestions are provided for regulating social media checks, tackling external validation issues, navigating social comparison, and dealing with negativity online. Building blocks from the habit change model are recommended to address problematic habits.
The future effects of smartphones are uncertain but learning from past generations can provide insights. Adopting a balanced, intentional approach to technology use based on understanding brain science can help avoid potential harms in the long run. Maintaining control over habits and relationships is emphasized.

The key themes are recognizing issues with excessive habituated social media use, developing internal motivators and reward systems, employing specific strategies to regulate checking behavior and reduce reliance on external validation, and taking a balanced, mindful approach to technology use going forward based on neuroscientific principles.

The book discusses different types of memories - semantic memories which are factual memories, and episodic memories which are recollections of specific personal events.
Busy periods like studying can lead to many semantic memories but few distinctive episodic memories, making times feel blurry.
Creating a balance of both semantic and episodic memories through embracing joyful moments is important for a fulfilling life. Experiences often contribute more to happiness than possessions.
Excessive phone use can produce mainly semantic facts without reflection, failing to cement robust memories. Mindful use allowing absorption can deepen understanding and memory.
Phones can be valuable memory aids by preserving photos and videos to relive moments. But over-documenting can diminish rich experience formation.
Technology provides escapism but balance is key to engage with lived experiences shaping the future self. Mindful digital habits align with goals.
Good sleep promotes memory consolidation in the brain’s permanent storage, enhancing recall.
Neurodegeneration like protein misfolding with age can gradually damage memory machinery if not cleared, initially causing dysfunction and potentially permanent damage.
Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia. It involves the accumulation of beta-amyloid and tau proteins in the brain, forming plaques and tangles that disrupt neuronal communication and function.
Early stages affect recent memory, while long-term memories remain intact. As the disease progresses, both long-term and other cognitive abilities are impacted.
Some people had high levels of plaques but no memory issues. They had greater brain size/connections, called cognitive reserve, that allowed compensation despite damage.
Cognitive reserve is built through education, intellectual work, and mentally stimulating activities. These strengthen brain connections over time.
While smartphone use has replaced rote memorization of numbers, our cognitive abilities have shifted to other frequently used tasks like passwords. Brains prioritize current needs.
Taxi drivers have larger hippocampi from navigating complex city streets, showing how challenging the brain builds cognitive reserve in key areas.
Overreliance on GPS for navigation could theoretically diminish hippocampal growth versus active navigation, but long-term studies are needed to determine impacts of technology on cognitive reserve.
Technology also enables social connection, a potent cognitive stimulus, and social media has benefits for mental health in older adults. Problematic overuse rather than technology itself likely drives negative effects.
Building cognitive reserve through mentally challenging activities is important for brain health and development. However, it is crucial to implement this advice with kindness toward oneself.
The brain needs breaks from challenges to avoid mental exhaustion, which can diminish performance. Taking breaks through relaxing activities is perfectly okay.
Parenting in the digital era poses new challenges as parents did not grow up with ubiquitous phone use. This activates an instinctive fear response in facing the unknown.
Headlines about smartphone dangers often oversimplify issues and ignore broader socioeconomic factors. A balanced perspective is needed to avoid stigmatizing narratives or blaming phones alone.
Context matters - kids from disadvantaged backgrounds may use technology more due to other challenges faced. Phone use could indicate overwhelmed parents struggling in other areas of life.
Banning technology is not practical or conductive to teaching good digital habits. The focus should be educating kids about safe practices, as we would with other dangers like crossing the street.
The goal as parents should be to raise independent children who can navigate the digital world on their own through internal rules rather than overly restrictive external rules.
Younger children with developing executive function need more guidance on technology use, similar to food habits. Small acts like giving control over turning off the TV can help build self-regulation.
As children mature, respect their perspectives and collaborate instead of imposing rules. Help them understand how their brain works to form healthy digital habits.
Model good digital habits yourself and avoid using technology as escapism. Balance is key for parents too to avoid constantly being in low power mode.
Fostering resilience, self-esteem and purpose is important alongside digital guidance. Mental health has many complex influences beyond just technology.
While technology use guidance is needed, have faith that children are adaptable and capable of leveraging digital tools productively, not just as passive consumers. The goal is cultivating conscious habits through a shared understanding of brain functions.
Changing digital behaviors takes time and consistent effort. Encourage critical thinking about online content and treating others with kindness.
Acknowledge any fear about technology but use it positively, not to restrict access. Open communication without criticism fosters understanding.
Summarizing key points from the book: Habits are formed in the brain and shape behavior strongly. Self-control and willpower are limited resources that get depleted with use. Paying attention to triggers and routines can help override habits. Environment, including from tech companies and policies, also influences behaviors.
The strategies in the book aim to develop solid digital habits aligned with goals by understanding how the brain works and habit formation. This allows connecting online while focusing on writing the book to continuously improve content.
While the book focuses on individuals, responsible tech usage requires acknowledgement of wider influences and accountability of governments, companies and workplaces in promoting healthier approaches. Implementing strategies independently can help reshape habits.

Here is a summary of the key points from the provided articles:

Articles 44 and 45 discuss apathy and dopamine’s distinct effects on effort-based decision making in Parkinson’s disease. Article 46 discusses the role of the basal ganglia in goal-directed vs habitual control.
Articles 47-49 discuss the role of dopamine in behaviors like hypoactivity, addiction, decision making, and impulse control disorders.
Articles 50-53 cover various topics like using temptation bundling to promote gym attendance, characterizing binge-watching behaviors, relationships between mood and days of the week, and user engagement for social media platforms.
Articles 54-58 focus on striatal and cortical regions involved in skill learning and habit formation, including results from animal and human studies.
Articles 59-64 discuss factors influencing mobile media habit formation and usage, including awareness, workplace rhythms, procrastination, interruptions, and multitasking behaviors.
Articles 65-73 cover challenges of multitasking and media multitasking, strategies to reduce interruptions, and experiments examining the impacts of limiting email usage.
Articles 74-82 discuss changes to working life due to the pandemic, benefits of batching notifications, the functions of sleep, and genetics influencing chronotype or circadian rhythms.
Articles 83-101 cover various aspects of light exposure and screens on sleep, including melatonin suppression, alertness, and relationships to mood, shift work, and seasonal variations.
Finally, articles 102 discusses the effects of caffeine on subsequent sleep in a systematic review.

Here is a summary of the key points from the papers:

Excessive smartphone and social media use has been linked to increased risks of mental health issues like addiction, anxiety, depression, and sleep problems (articles 103, 104, 105).
Studies on the relationship between social media use and well-being have found mixed results, with some finding no relationship or potential benefits, while others found increased risks depending on individual characteristics and type of use (passive vs. active) (articles 106, 127, 128, 129, 154).
Viewing self-harm or suicide content online can negatively impact mental health (articles 107, 108). Cyberbullying on social media is also linked to worse well-being (article 109).
The amygdala plays a key role in emotion processing and is implicated in mental health conditions like anxiety (articles 110, 111, 112, 113). Early life stress and trauma can impact amygdala development (articles 114, 115).
Digital tools like VR and meditation apps show promise for managing conditions like pain and anxiety by engaging emotion regulation regions of the brain (articles 116, 117, 120). Naturally rewarding activities like nature walks may also benefit mental health through impacting amygdala activity (article 122).
Stress Response systems implicate structures like the amygdala and have complex, non-linear relationships to mental health (articles 123-125). Abstaining from social media shows some promise for improving well-being, though more research is needed (articles 149-153).

Here is a summary of the articles:

Ostolova et al. (2022) looked at how personal social networks can create cognitively stimulating environments that contribute to cognitive reserve. They found that larger, more complex social networks were associated with greater cognitive reserve in older adults. Maintaining social connections may help protect against cognitive decline.
Cotten & Schuster (2022) reviewed research on the relationship between social media use and well-being in older adults. Studies have found social media can help older adults feel less isolated and lonely. However, excessive use is linked to poorer well-being, so moderation is important.
Khoo & Yang (2020) investigated whether social media use improved executive functions in middle-aged and older adults. Using structural equation modeling, they found social media use was significantly associated with better performance on tasks involving working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control.
Balderston et al. (2013) examined how threat affects novelty-evoked amygdala responses. They found threat enhanced amygdala responses to novel stimuli, indicating threat increases vigilance toward new information to promote adaptive responding to potential danger.

The remaining articles were not summarized as they were not related to the topic of social media, cognitive reserve, and the brain. Let me know if you would like a summary of any of the other individual articles.

#book-summary

Phone Fix, The - Dr Faye Begeti