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This introduction discusses the recent trend of building border walls and fences around the world, with over 65 countries having built barriers along their borders since World War II.
Walls are erected for various reasons including protection, defense from threats, controlling immigration, and keeping certain groups out. However, walls also represent wider political and social divisions.
The book will examine physical and invisible barriers between groups divided by wealth, race, religion, politics and more. It discusses how globalization and new threats have paradoxically increased nationalism and division.
Walls have existed throughout human history as tribes competed for resources and defined themselves against others. Major religious, political and ideological divisions have also functioned as invisible barriers.
The intro provides context on how walls represent deeper issues of group identity and formation of “us vs. them” narratives. It sets up the book’s examination of divisions and barriers between groups around the world.

The key points are:

Se walls are the physical divisions, but not the underlying reasons for division. They represent but do not explain the challenges of identity.
The author has focused on regions that illustrate identity challenges in a globalized world, specifically the effects of migration, nationalism as a force for unity and division, and the intersection of religion and politics.
In China, the author discusses regional unrest, wealth disparity, and the need for government control as challenges to national unity that threaten economic progress and power.
The US is divided along racial and partisan lines that have been exacerbated under Trump.
Reunifying Korea is extremely complex due to the many players involved with different interests and viewpoints.
Religious and ethnic divisions spark violence in the Middle East.
Population movements on the Indian subcontinent reveal challenges of religious persecution and economic migration.
Colonial borders in Africa are difficult to reconcile with tribal identities.
Nationalism poses challenges to European unity as evidenced by Brexit.

So in summary, walls represent but do not explain divisions, which stem from complex issues of identity challenged by globalization.

The Great Wall represented China’s attitude of “Sinocentrism” - that China was the most advanced civilization and its emperor was the sole legitimate ruler. Nearby regions were expected to recognize Chinese dominance.
Over centuries, the Great Wall enhanced China’s security and economic growth by aiding agriculture, trade along the Silk Road, and binding the country politically. At its longest point, it stretched over 13,000 miles.
The wall remained an important national symbol after 1949. Mao referenced it in a poem, though some Communists saw it as part of China’s feudal past. Deng Xiaoping later spearheaded reconstruction efforts in the 1980s for tourism and economic gain.
While only partially effective militarily, the wall was invaluable as a symbol dividing China from outsiders. It remains an iconic representation of ancient Chinese culture.
China faces issues integrating non-Han regions like Xinjiang, Tibet, and Inner Mongolia that surround the Han heartland. These provide strategic importance but also have separatist movements and unrest over Chinese domination. Mass Han migration is changing the demographics in places like Xinjiang. Maintaining control over these regions is important for China’s security and image as a unified power.
There are around 6 million Han Chinese living in Tibetan areas, often in separate neighborhoods from Tibetans in towns but mixed in rural areas where Tibetans remain the majority.
The Communist Party is concerned about divisions between ethnic groups threatening unity, as divisions weakened China in the past. Historical examples discussed include 19th century trade routes benefitting coastal areas over the interior and weakening central authority.
After 1949 the Communists centralized power to reunite China but stunted development. Deng Xiaoping later opened the economy, risking renewed coastal/interior divisions.
Inequality has widened greatly between rich coastal areas and poor interior and urban/rural populations due to economic reforms. A third of wealth is owned by 1% of households while the bottom 25% own just 1%.
The hukou system of household registration entrenches urban/rural inequality by restricting social services and opportunities based on registration location. Mass internal migration increases these divides as migrants face discrimination.
The government aims to address problems through continued urbanization but great imbalances in development, wealth and opportunities across regions and populations remain a challenge.
Migrant workers from rural areas who move to cities like Shanghai for work do not qualify for social services like healthcare and education due to their rural agricultural household registration status. This creates an urban underclass with no social protections.
Addressing this problem poses challenges for the government. Providing equal services in cities and countryside would be hugely expensive. But keeping the status quo risks social disorder as millions remain marginalized.
Other issues include an aging population due to the one-child policy, rising inequality between rich and poor, and potential for regionalism if local governments are given more autonomy over taxation and spending.
The government tackles these issues through controls on information flow, censoring the internet, monitoring social media, and separating urban and rural populations physically and digitally through policies like the hukou system and firewalls. This aim to maintain social and economic stability but creates internal contradictions for development.
During his campaign, Donald Trump promised to build a wall along the US-Mexico border to curb illegal immigration. However, actually building such a wall would face significant challenges and opposition.
Ann Coulter published a sarcastic “detailed schedule” for Trump’s first 100 days that just said “continue building the wall” each day, knowing this was unrealistic. Clickbait media helped promote unrealistic expectations.
Building a wall would be extremely expensive. There are also significant technological, geographical, and environmental barriers that make continuous wall construction along the entire border practically impossible.
Politically, there would be strong opposition both within the US and from Mexico. Defining what constitutes the “border” is also difficult in some areas due to the Rio Grande River.
While curbing illegal immigration was a goal, the realities of building a continuous border wall made actually fulfilling Trump’s campaign promise through immediate and continuous construction unrealistic, even if he wanted to do so. More moderate policies were likely.

Here is a summary of the key details about the terrain upon which the wall was proposed to be built:

The US-Mexico border runs approximately 1800 miles from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean. It passes through diverse terrain including deserts, mountains, and rivers.
Securing such a long and varied border effectively against illegal crossing presented major engineering challenges for building a continuous wall.
Trump had specified precast concrete wall segments about 30 feet high on average. However, actual construction plans would need to account for the differing topography along the border.
One proposal submitted envisioned a double wall with a trench in between filled with nuclear waste. Another envisioned a wall built on an earthen berm like sections of the Great Wall of China.
The terrain along much of the border is flat desert land in some areas but also includes mountainous regions that would be difficult to construct an continuous wall through. This variability added complexity to engineering and building a wall across the entire border.

In summary, the US-Mexico border passes through diverse terrain along its 1800 mile length, from deserts to mountains, presenting engineering challenges for any continuous border wall that was proposed to be constructed.

The US-Mexico border shifted significantly in the 19th century due to conflicts like the Mexican-American War, which saw Mexico cede around a third of its territory to the US.
Smuggling and illegal immigration across the border increased in the early-mid 20th century due to prohibition, economic factors like the Great Depression, and demand for labor.
The US began erecting barriers along parts of the border in the 1920s but efforts were limited. Fencing increased in the 1970s and significant expansion occurred after 9/11 in the 2000s under Bush and Obama.
However, barriers have proven ineffective at fully stopping illegal border crossings, which are still driven by economic opportunities in the US and unscrupulous employers. They also push migrants into more dangerous remote areas.
Controlling illegal immigration is a challenge due to limited resources for deportation and barriers circumvention. The status quo dissatisfies both sides of the immigration debate.

So in summary, the passage outlines the evolution of the US-Mexico border and increasing fortification efforts over the 20th-21st centuries, but notes barriers have not solved illegal immigration issues.

Building a border wall along the entire US-Mexico border would face many political, legal, and practical challenges. These include private land ownership, environmental laws, treaties with Mexico, and the varied landscape.
Estimated costs for building 1,000 miles of border wall range widely from $10-40 billion, much higher than Trump’s initial $10-12 billion estimate. Maintenance costs are additional.
Funding would be difficult as Mexico has refused to pay for the wall, contrary to Trump’s claims. The high costs would require substantial US government spending.
Past experience with border fencing shows walls can be designed around or tunnels dug under due to gaps needed for private land access and environmental laws respecting the Rio Grande floodplain.
Overall, fully constructing a border wall faces significant political, legal, financial, and practical obstacles according to this analysis.
Trump wants to build a border wall to curb illegal immigration from Mexico, but Mexico refuses to pay for it. The wall is a controversial symbolic gesture that divides Americans along ideological lines.
Race is a major division in American society, with a declining white majority and growing Hispanic population expected to make whites a minority within decades. Trump’s rhetoric on immigrants contributes to discrimination against Latinos.
The deepest racial divide is between white and black Americans, with historical and present-day racism contributing to stark disparities in health, wealth, education, incarceration rates, and life expectancy between the two groups. Statistics demonstrate the negative effects of racism from childhood through adulthood.
While progress has been made, more work remains to achieve full racial equality and address the roots of inequality dating back to slavery. Police shootings of unarmed black men have increased protests and unrest.
Religion also diversifies American society, though most identify as Christian. The wall intensifies debates over national identity and what defines America in the current political and social climate.
Around 80% of Americans identify as Christian, with Protestants making up the largest group at 46.6%. Catholics are the next largest at 20.8%.
Other faiths with significant numbers include Jews, Mormons, Muslims, Buddhists and Hindus.
While America remains predominantly Christian, other faiths have gained followers in recent decades.
The ideal of a melting pot and assimilation has faced challenges from growing multiculturalism and identity politics. People increasingly identify by ethnicity, religion or other groups.
This polarization was seen in the 2016 presidential election when Trump criticized a Muslim Gold Star family, hinting their religion prevented the wife from speaking.
Political views have also become more entrenched, with growing contempt between Republicans and Democrats. Committed voters are concentrated geographically as well.
Extremism is also occurring on college campuses, exemplified by an incident at Evergreen State College where a professor faced hostile protests over race issues.
Ultimately this closing of discourse from both political sides threatens the ideal of compromise at the center of American democracy. It reduces tolerance and space for differing views.
The passage describes the separation wall/barrier between Israel and the Palestinian West Bank, noting that while most is a fence, the concrete sections have become its visual representation.
It discusses the depressing experience of crossing checkpoints in the wall and entering restricted Palestinian zones. The wall is seen as oppressive and dividing communities.
British artist Banksy has painted political murals on the Palestinian side, depicting resistance and the daily difficult lives of Palestinians. He opened the Walled Off Hotel, whose rooms directly face the barrier.
The wall aims to prevent violence but Palestinians see it as a land grab that divides Palestinian territory. Israel cites security reasons while Palestinians argue it undermines a future two-state solution.
Over 400,000 Israeli Jews now live in settlements in the West Bank, which have grown into full towns connected by roads that restrict Palestinian movement and territorial contiguity. The political and territorial disputes remain deeply entrenched.
The Israeli security barrier roughly follows the 1949 armistice line but extends into the Palestinian side in some areas, appropriating land. This angers Palestinians.
Israeli opinions on the settlements are divided. Religious settlers cite biblical claims to the land, while secular settlers say Israel seized it from Jordan.
The barrier has reduced violence by preventing attacks from the West Bank, but it divides communities and contributes to Palestinian suffering and land seizures.
While most Israelis favor it for security, critics see it as a symbol of oppression that entrenches occupation. Diplomat David Kornbluth believes it successfully lowered deaths but should only be temporary.
Israeli society itself is divided along ethnic, religious, and political lines between Jews of European/Middle Eastern descent and factions that control narrow coalitions. This deep fragmentation mirrors divisions over its borders and settlements.
There are religious, cultural and political divides among Israeli Jews. The main divisions are between Ashkenazi (of European heritage) and Sephardi Jews (of Middle Eastern heritage), and between secular, traditional, religious and ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) groups.
These groups have different cultural practices in terms of music, food, dress and social interactions. They often live in separate neighborhoods and send their children to different schools. Intermarriage is uncommon.
Politically, the religious groups tend to support religious political parties and have different views than secular Israelis on issues like settlements, gender segregation, and relations with Palestinians.
There are also economic divides, as Haredi groups tend to have larger families and face higher unemployment. Overall, poverty is significant in Israel.
Tensions exist over religious sites like the Western Wall, where there have been disputes between groups over gender separation and practices.
While Israelis unite during security crises, the internal divisions threaten social cohesion and could undermine the country. Addressing inequalities is seen as important.
Arab Israelis, about 20% of the population, have citizenship but often feel socially and economically marginalized. They lead largely separate lives from Jewish Israelis. Resolving divisions remains a challenge for Israeli society.
Israeli Arab communities lack access to higher-paying jobs, resulting in high poverty rates, especially for Arab families (50%) and Haredim (Ultra-Orthodox Jews).
Eight of Israel’s ten poorest towns are Arab, with lower education standards contributing to poverty.
Israeli Arabs face discrimination, as evidenced by polls showing 79% feel discriminated against.
Quotas for minority groups in public sector jobs are rarely met, and anti-discrimination laws lack enforcement.
Within Arab populations, Christians tend to be socially/economically equal to Jews while Bedouins are most disadvantaged. Many Bedouins live in unrecognized villages without basic utilities.
Land disputes with the state have restricted Bedouin nomadic lifestyle. Half the 200,000 strong Bedouin population now live in unrecognized villages.
Most non-Jewish Israelis do not serve in the military due to it operating in occupied territories, though some Bedouins, Muslims, and Christians do volunteer.

Small concrete walls and blast walls have been erected all over cities in the Middle East in response to frequent terrorist attacks. These walls surround embassies, government buildings, police stations, and other areas at risk of attack. The walls aim to contain violence and protect daily life on one side, while acknowledging the threat of attacks that could occur without the barriers. The widespread use of walls as protection reflects how endemic terrorist violence has become in the region. The Green Zone in Baghdad, surrounded by giant concrete slabs after the 2003 US invasion, served as a template for this type of fortified area. While the walls saved lives, they were not foolproof against certain bomb designs and remained a stark acknowledgment of the violence faced in the wider community outside the protected areas.

Walls were built in Iraq during the US occupation to separate Sunni and Shia neighborhoods, in an effort to reduce violence between militias. Each segment cost over $600, meaning the total financial cost was in the billions.
Soldiers became skilled at rapidly constructing walls, even under fire. While the walls saved civilian lives, they also further divided communities and contributed to the destabilization of Iraq after Saddam’s fall.
The invasion of Iraq led to the growth of violent Islamist groups like ISIS and trained jihadists who spread instability to other countries during the Arab uprisings starting in 2011.
Sectarian tensions in the region, especially between Sunnis and Shias, have grown greatly due to factors like the Saudi-Iran rivalry and conflicts in Syria, Iraq, Yemen. Over 45% of global terrorist attacks in 2014 occurred in the Arab world.
Most countries in the Middle East have Sunni or Shia majorities, and minorities face discrimination. Conflicts often erupt along sectarian lines, exacerbated by foreign influence from Saudi Arabia and Iran taking opposite sides. Millions have been displaced or killed in regional violence.

Several Middle Eastern countries have constructed border fences and barriers in recent years due to instability and conflict in neighboring countries. Jordan has built a high-tech security fence along its border with Syria to control the flow of refugees from the Syrian civil war. Saudi Arabia has lengthy fences along its borders with Iraq and Yemen to prevent illegal immigration and militant activity. Kuwait maintains a barrier along its border with Iraq due to their history of conflict. Turkey is constructing a wall along parts of its border with Syria to stop refugees and militant spillover from the Syrian war. All of these countries seek to gain greater control over their borders amid regional instability, though their motives and relationships with neighboring states vary in each case. Border fences have become a common tool for Middle Eastern countries to attempt to gain security amid chaos in the surrounding region.

The Kurds have faced discrimination and human rights abuses in Iraq and other countries they reside in. Saddam Hussein launched genocidal campaigns against them in Iraq in the 1980s.
Multiple factors have contributed to problems in the Arab world, including religion causing divisions, colonial-era borders splitting ethnic/cultural groups, lack of economic opportunities, wealth inequality, and authoritarian governments limiting civil rights and open discourse.
An influential 2002 UN report identified “three deficits” hindering development - lack of freedoms limiting knowledge, low internet/communications access, and low women’s participation. Progress has been limited due to entrenched authority resisting change.
Some argue the historic closing of “ijtihad” (independent reasoning on religious issues) has reduced intellectual openness in Arab cultures compared to others. Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman is trying to enact economic and social reforms to modernize the kingdom.
Various ideologies like nationalism, socialism, and strongmen rule have failed to unite Arabs or solve political issues. Religious, ethnic and tribal identities have become stronger as nation-states weakened. Some retreat into intolerant Islamist thinking that sees others as enemies.
Poverty and education are not sole causes of extremism; separation of religion and politics may be another needed reform, given Islam’s all-encompassing nature in many societies. Overall the situation remains politically fragmented and developmentally challenged.
India has constructed a lengthy border fence along most of its border with Bangladesh to prevent illegal immigration and security threats. However, people continue to cross the border illegally despite risks like landmines and shoot-to-kill policies that have resulted in deaths.
The death of 15-year-old Felani Khatun in 2011, who was shot while trying to cross back into Bangladesh, highlighted the human costs of such barriers. Border deaths have been increasing globally with more security measures.
Religious and ethnic divisions across the Indian subcontinent stem partly from borders drawn by colonial powers dividing regions with mixed populations. The partition of India and Pakistan in 1947 along religious lines exacerbated tensions.
Millions were displaced and killed during the partition as Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs fled to regions where their religious group was the majority. The psychological scars of partition have never fully healed.
India remains a magnet for migrants and refugees from neighboring countries and regions like Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Tibet, Pakistan and Bangladesh due to its large economy, democracy, and minority protections relative to neighbors. However, illegal immigration also strains resources and stokes nationalist tensions.

The upheavals in Afghanistan and economic hardship in Bangladesh have led to large numbers of people migrating to India over time. By far the largest group are from Bangladesh, which shares a long border with India.

Since partition in 1947, people from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) have crossed into India due to persecution, intolerance, and poverty. The number increased greatly after Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan in 1971 through a violent conflict. Bangladesh and Pakistan were never geographically or linguistically well-suited to be a single nation.

Today, thousands continue crossing annually from Bangladesh, fleeing poverty, climate impacts like floods, and growing religious persecution of Hindu and Christian minorities by extremist groups in Bangladesh. An estimated 15 million people have permanently migrated from Bangladesh to India this century, settling mainly in the border states of West Bengal, Assam, and others. This influx has caused significant social, economic and political problems.

Assam in particular has seen its population more than double since 1971 due to illegal immigration. There is growing fear among locals about losing their cultural and linguistic identity. However, effectively controlling the porous border and establishing legal frameworks to handle refugees/migrants has proved difficult for India. Despite efforts like the 1985 Assam Accord, the situation remains complex and tensions persist.

Narendra Modi and other Indian politicians see illegal immigration from Bangladesh as a national security threat. They claim Pakistan uses it to change demographics and weaken India by supporting separatist groups in border states.
However, others argue there is little evidence for visions of a separate Muslim state called “Bango Bhoomi.” Walls and fences also likely do little to stop terrorism, which often uses legal means to infiltrate.
Climate change impacts like sea level rise and flooding threaten to displace millions in Bangladesh, potentially driving mass migration to India. This could exacerbate existing tensions over illegal immigration.
Bangladesh is also home to hundreds of thousands of Rohingya refugees fleeing religious persecution in Myanmar. However, as a poor country, Bangladesh struggles to care for and accommodate the refugees, causing risks of unrest, radicalization, and conflicts over border controls. Climate-induced migration from Bangladesh poses major humanitarian and political challenges for both countries.
Myanmar (also known as Burma) has tended to claim it will allow Rohingya refugees to return, while actually planning to expand barriers along the Bangladesh border and potentially laying landmines. Returning would also be difficult since over 200 Rohingya villages were burned down and discrimination continues.
No obvious solution is in sight as long as Myanmar continues oppressing its minorities. This border situation is a source of tension and instability.
The Naga people, who live along the India-Myanmar border, find themselves divided by national borders after independence but consider themselves a distinct group, not Indian or Burmese. Their insurgency occasionally spills over the border, leading Myanmar to construct fencing in some areas starting in 2017. However, this threatens to further divide Naga communities and families.
India has constructed substantial border barriers/fences along several disputed borders for security reasons, including the Bangladesh, Pakistan (Line of Control in Kashmir), and sections of the Pakistan border further west. These barriers incorporate technology like sensors, cameras and floodlights to monitor cross-border activity. However, Pakistan criticizes some of these as violating agreements.
The India-Pakistan border, known as the Line of Control, has been the site of much tension and violence over Kashmir, which both countries claim. The 1949 Karachi Agreement regulates behavior along the border but is often ignored by both sides. Cross-border shootings and shelling regularly occur.
The Pakistan-Afghanistan border, known as the Durand Line, separates Pashtuns and was drawn by the British without local consent. Neither Afghanistan nor some Pashtun groups recognize it. Pakistan covertly supports Taliban groups in Afghanistan to maintain influence but this has backfired with attacks inside Pakistan.
Both India and Iran are erecting border barriers - India with Bangladesh and Pakistan, Iran with Pakistan - due to issues like militancy, drugs, and unrest. This goes against ideas of regional economic cooperation and integration.
Religious divisions, especially between majority Hindu India and Islamic Pakistan and Bangladesh, represent an invisible but deep divide reinforcing physical borders.
Internally, India has the deeply entrenched and discriminatory caste system, dividing Hindus into hereditary social classes. Lower castes like Dalits face severe prejudice and are confined to menial labor. The system is religiously justified and still influences most aspects of life.
The Moroccan Wall is a 1,700 mile long sand wall built by Morocco to separate the Western Sahara territory it controls from the Free Zone controlled by the Polisario Front Independence movement.
It contains sand berms up to 7 feet high, trenches, and millions of landmines stretching into the desert. Moroccan army outposts are stationed every 3 miles along the wall.
The wall was built in the 1980s to keep Polisario Front fighters away after a 16-year war when Morocco annexed Western Sahara in 1975 as Spain withdrew.
The land and people on both sides culturally identify as Sahrawi but Morocco has populated the Western Sahara side through immigration incentives, changing the demographic.
The Sahrawi people’s traditional lands and nomadic lifestyle have been restricted by the wall and border imposed against their will. Many now live in refugee camps.
The wall has led to a silent separation and remains controversial as the Sahrawi seek independence from Moroccan control over their territory and people.
Many African nation-states suffer from ethnic and tribal conflicts due to their colonial history. European colonial powers arbitrarily drew borders without regard for existing ethnic and cultural divisions in Africa.
Pre-colonial Africa consisted of many distinct ethnic groups and kingdoms, sometimes referred to as tribes. Tribal identities provided communities with a shared history, culture, and support systems.
When Europeans established the modern nation-state system, they combined numerous distinct ethnic groups within artificial borders. This disrupted existing political structures and forced different peoples together, sometimes exacerbating tensions.
The example of Benin City in what is now Nigeria is given. It was once a powerful pre-colonial empire but was destroyed by the British in their efforts to consolidate colonial control. Its borders were subsumed into the new entity of British Nigeria without consideration of existing ethnic groups.
Tribal identities remain strong in Africa today and sometimes compete with nascent national identities, which can be a source of conflict given the history of colonial state formation.
Many African states were artificially created by European colonial powers, combining diverse ethnic groups and nations within single borders. This legacy continues to cause problems.
Early African leaders worked with colonial borders to avoid conflict, but failed to unite divided peoples. Most relied on oppression rather than policies to forge genuine nationhood.
Angola is used as an example of an artificially constructed state comprising over 10 major ethnic groups. Its borders were determined by European claims, not ethnic identities.
Many groups like the Bakongo in Angola feel kinship with kin across borders and seek self-determination in their historic homelands. Secessionist movements persist due to divisions imposed by colonial rule.
Territorial and oil disputes between states often reflect colonial boundaries rather than ethnic affiliation, fueling conflicts like those between Cameroon/Nigeria and within nations like Burundi, DRC, Nigeria, Ethiopia and Sudan.
Over 60 years after independence, the lasting impact of Europe arbitrarily redrawing maps of Africa persists as a root cause of tensions, wars and millions of deaths across the continent. True nation-states have yet to fully replace the colonial constructs.
Nigerians are generally unhappy with the ICJ ruling that ceded Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroon. Some want the case revisited and the territory reclaimed, as argued by the Vanguard newspaper of the Niger Delta region.
Academics debate the extent to which ethnic conflicts are driven by ethnicity vs. politicians exploiting tensions for power. While politicians may manipulate ethnic divisions, the differences are real and run deep.
Strong tribal affiliations can split politics along ethnic lines and distract from national interests. South Africa’s political system is fragmented along tribal lines linked to parties like the Inkatha Freedom Party for Zulus.
Tribalism encourages favoritism/corruption, which impacts appointments, deals, and judgments. It damages economic development as funds get diverted.
However, some countries have managed tribal tensions through power-sharing agreements and national languages/identities like Nigeria alternates presidency and Tanzania’s use of Swahili.
Tribal divisions overall are a distraction from state development and unity, and fuel conflicts that destabilize countries and displace millions with huge economic and human costs.

Gated communities are growing rapidly across Africa, fueled by rising wealth and crime. They offer luxuries like pools, bars and security fencing to upper- and middle-class residents. However, they also reinforce inequality and social divisions.

In cities like Lusaka, Zambia and Lagos, Nigeria, opulent gated developments stand in stark contrast to nearby slums. They promote exclusivity, only allowing entry to those who can afford high prices. This contrasts with Africa’s traditional ethos of extended families supporting each other.

Gated communities threaten social cohesion. By separating the wealthy behind walls and privatizing services, they diminish public spaces and civic engagement. This risks weakening the role of governments and national identity. While offering security, they may paradoxically increase local crime rates by making burglary targets more obvious.

Overall, fortified neighborhoods symbolize and exacerbate inequality across Africa. They represent new “tribes” divided by class rather than ethnicity. But traditional ethnic identities remain strong for most Africans, posing challenges for building unified nation-states.

The passage describes Europe during the Cold War period when it was divided by the Iron Curtain between Western capitalist nations and Eastern communist nations under Soviet control.
It provides details about the Berlin Wall, which divided East and West Berlin and symbolized the ideological divide in Europe. The wall was built in 1961 to stop the flow of East Germans migrating to West Germany. It made Berlin an isolated city within East Germany.
Crossing borders within Western Europe was routine with a passport, but crossing into Eastern Europe required extensive paperwork and security checks as movements were closely monitored. The Iron Curtain and Berlin Wall physically represented the division of Europe.
Life behind the Iron Curtain was far more restrictive. Travel within communist countries was often limited and contact with the West was difficult. The wall succeeded in halting mass migration from East to West Germany but imprisoned East Germans behind an ideological and physical barrier.
In 1989, reforms in the Soviet Union under Gorbachev led to opening up in Eastern Europe, including East Germany. Hungary dismantled parts of its border with Austria, allowing East Germans to travel there for summer holidays.
In August 1989, hundreds of East Germans camped outside the West German consulate in Hungary seeking refuge. On August 19th, hundreds rushed through an opening in the border between Hungary and Austria, the first stone falling from the Berlin Wall.
Mass protests in East Germany grew, and in November the government announced new visa rules allowing travel to West Germany. Due to a miscommunication, the borders opened that very night, and thousands rushed through the opening in the Berlin Wall amid joyous scenes.
Germany reunified in 1990 after 45 years divided, but deep economic, political and social divisions remained between East and West Germans. Two and a half decades later, the eastern regions remain poorer, with a population decline and cultural differences still apparent in things like consumer goods preferences and marriage patterns. Regional identities and some remnants of the divide can still be seen today.
After the fall of the Berlin Wall, many saw it as evidence that Europe should unite into a single federation with open borders and a shared currency. This vision helped drive the expansion of the European Union (EU).
However, the EU struggled with the economic and political realities of integrating diverse nation states. The eurozone faced challenges without unified fiscal policies. Expansion to eastern Europe brought economic integration issues.
Freedom of movement increased economic migration, fueling nationalist backlashes in some countries. The 2008 financial crisis further eroded public support as austerity measures hit.
Rising populism challenged the EU vision. Separatist movements grew and Euroskeptic parties expanded their influence. Events like the Catalan crisis highlighted continued tensions between national and EU identities.
The migrant crisis of 2015-2016 exacerbated these fault lines, intensifying debates over national sovereignty, borders, and the limits of political unity in Europe. Support for the EU project declined as nationalist sentiments increased in many member states.
Millions have fled violence in Africa and the Middle East and sought refuge in Europe. At first EU countries welcomed refugees, but numbers overwhelmed systems.
Attitudes changed as over 1 million refugees arrived in Europe in 2015 alone. Borders tightened within the Schengen zone as countries sought more control.
Fences went up along various borders like Greece-Turkey to stem migrant flows. Countries like Hungary built fence along Serbia border to stop over 3000 daily crossings. Schengen border controls now common.
Terror attacks linked to immigration increased fears. People worried about jobs, resources, services, and fairness given many weren’t from EU. Support fell for immigration according to polls.
Leaders struggled to manage levels of immigration and popular discontent. Measures like Denmark taking cash/jewelry from asylum seekers aimed to address costs and dissuade flows, but were criticized.
Overall, a perfect storm of crises - migration, security threats, economic fears - fueled rise of “barrier continent” with border fences and tensions within EU over sharing burden of refugees.
Denmark had already required unemployed citizens without insurance to sell assets before receiving state support. With 21,000 asylum seekers in 2015, promoting charity became difficult given social egalitarianism values.
Critics argued new regulations were racist and comparable to Nazis, annoying many Danes. Others worried newcomers don’t share European values like gender equality and freedom of religion/speech.
Muslims actually make a small proportion of EU populations, but there are visible concentrations in urban areas, misleading perceptions. Negative views of Muslims are more common in Southern/Eastern Europe.
Anti-Muslim sentiments are rising in places like France due to terrorism and migration. Whole areas are overwhelmingly Muslim but poor and segregated, like immigrant communities in the 1920s.
Some Muslim community leaders encourage separation, compounding immigrant integration challenges. Rising Far Right nationalism across EU countries opposes further integration and fears Islam.
Germany opened its doors to migrants in 2015 but faces increasing domestic opposition, showing the difficult issues Europe must resolve over values, identity and immigration.
Germany took in nearly 1 million refugees and migrants in 2015, mostly from Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq and other countries. This was the largest influx since WWII.
Initial response was positive but problems emerged with integration as newcomers gravitated to areas with existing ethnic communities, changing demographics. Housing became scarce.
Public support declined after incidents like assaults in Cologne. Attacks on immigrant shelters rose to over 1,000 in 2015 and stayed high in 2016 despite lower arrivals.
Attitudes are more negative in eastern Germany which received fewer migrants under quota systems. Reports show much higher rates of extremist attacks against migrants in eastern states.
Movements like PEGIDA and AfD gained popularity by opposing immigration and multiculturalism. AfD capitalized on anti-migrant sentiment and became the largest far-right party, entering parliament in 2017.
The migrant crisis has destabilized politics across Europe and threatens EU solidarity as countries take harder nationalist stances like Hungary and Poland. Core liberal values are increasingly under challenge.

The passage discusses Hadrian’s Wall, which was built by the Romans in northern Britain around 122 CE to defend their conquered territory against the tribes they could not rule to the north. It stretched for 73 miles and marked the northern limit of Roman control. Over time, as the Romans left Britain and the wall fell into disrepair, it came to symbolize the division between Romanized England to the south and the Celtic cultures of what became Scotland and Wales to the north. Centuries later, remnants of the wall were still standing and helped define the boundary between England and Scotland. Even today, though most of the wall is gone, it continues to symbolize one of the main divisions within the United Kingdom, highlighting that political unification does not erase deeper cultural differences. The next few years will show if Europe can build a stable future as a more politically united region or risks divisions resurfacing.

The United Kingdom has a long history of uniting different peoples and nations, including England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. However, in recent years cultural identities within the UK have diverged more, exacerbated by Brexit.

Scotland and England have distinct historical origins and national identities, though they were brought closer together politically starting in the early 17th century. Scottish Gaelic language and culture have declined but Scots maintain a strong sense of national identity separate from the English. Devolution granted Scotland more autonomy over its own affairs in the late 1990s and 2010s.

Wales also has its own distinct Celtic history and language (Welsh), which was suppressed but later revived. Devolution similarly granted the Welsh assembly control over devolved matters.

Cornwall also sees itself as a distinct region from England with its own cultural identity, though it has not pushed strongly for more autonomy.

Most inhabitants of these various countries and regions interact and coexist peacefully despite maintaining separate identities under the overarching structure and values of the UK. However, Northern Ireland remains the exception due to deep sectarian divisions between unionist Protestants and nationalist Catholics over the constitutional status of Northern Ireland since its establishment as a political entity in 1921.

Here are the key points about achieving reconciliation in Northern Ireland:

The Troubles from the late 1960s to 1990s involved sectarian violence between Protestant unionists and Catholic nationalists and cost over 3,500 lives.
The 1998 Good Friday Agreement ended most violence but deep divisions remain, especially in divided housing and segregated school systems.
Physical “peace walls” or barriers dividing neighborhoods in Belfast symbolize the ongoing conflict, though violence has reduced. They began appearing during the Troubles.
Changing demographics may impact the divisions, as Catholic populations grow and Protestants become a minority in Northern Ireland. This could influence its status within the UK.
Brexit has exacerbated old divisions as Northern Ireland voted remain, and the new border with EU member Ireland risks upsetting the peace process.
Overcoming entrenched segregation in housing, education, politics, and community life is difficult but considered essential for fully reconciling the two communities. Increasing interaction and trust-building across divides is important.

In summary, while the 1998 agreement resolved most violence, deep-seated sectarian divisions persist in Northern Ireland due to segregated institutions and attitudes. Continued efforts are needed to promote integration and reconciliation. Changing demographics and Brexit also introduce new challenges.

David Goodhart has characterized a major division in UK society between “Anywheres” and “Somewheres”. Anywheres are more globally mobile, educated professionals who are comfortable anywhere, while Somewheres have stronger local identities and are rooted near where they grew up. Mass immigration since 2004 from Eastern Europe has accelerated cultural changes and fears about the loss of community among Somewheres. While immigration has economic benefits, the rapid pace of change and lack of government support for communities has led to unease among some in the UK who feel their country and neighborhoods have been transformed beyond recognition. Debates around nationalism, immigration and identity have exposed divisions between cosmopolitan progressives and more rooted, locally-identified citizens. Successive governments largely failed to address anxieties about immigration or consider its social impacts, fueling resentment and fears of marginalization. Managing diversity and change more gradually with community support could help bridge divisions.

In a 2011 UK census, around 1 in 20 people identified as Muslim, but public perception estimates the Muslim population to be much higher, around 1 in 6. This is partly due to concentrations of Muslims in urban areas.
Islam is now the fastest growing religion in the UK. It could become the most widely practiced religion due to continued immigration and declining Christian participation rates. However, defining who is a devout practitioner varies between religions.
There is some tension between increasing liberal social values in the UK (e.g. acceptance of homosexuality, abortion) and more conservative Islamic views held by some Muslims. A 2016 poll found 52% of British Muslims believed homosexuality should be illegal.
Parts of some UK cities are overwhelmingly Muslim with little contact with non-Muslim neighborhoods, challenging social cohesion. Both multiculturalism and some religious teachings promote separation rather than assimilation.
The future balance between a secular, pluralistic form of Islam integrating into UK society versus more conservative political versions seeking to change laws is uncertain and could significantly impact the country. Maintaining social cohesion will be an ongoing challenge.
The passage describes zones or spaces between different areas of control or division as strange and potentially dangerous places. Crossing between these spaces can be unnerving as one is aware of being watched and targeted on both sides.
Examples given include the divided city of Varosha in Cyprus, with a buffer zone between the Greek and Turkish sides. Also, crossing between Israel and Gaza involves checkpoints and a wide no-man’s land zone monitored by both sides.
While walls can provide temporary security from threats like terrorism, they are also criticized for imbuing divisions with a false sense of resolution and offending human values. Mass migration driven by global problems will continue regardless.
The passage discusses the “open borders” argument that completely free movement worldwide could nearly double the global economy and reduce poverty by more efficiently allocating labor. However, it may overload resources in wealthier countries and mass movement risks destabilizing countries that lose citizens. It also ignores human tendencies towards group identity and nationalism in response to large population changes.
Alfredo Olmedo, a man from Salta province in northern Argentina, said he agrees 100% with Donald Trump’s view that countries need to build border walls. He believes open borders will not work in the current climate or foreseeable future.
While the idea of nation-states has caused problems, it is too late to dissolve them and make the world a borderless “province of all mankind.” The world is too complex for a sudden shift to global governance. Nation-states continue to survive despite frequent predictions of their demise.
For outer space, the UN has established that space cannot be subject to terrestrial claims of sovereignty or property rights by nations. However, this approach is not feasible for governing the Earth, where territories and borders already exist.
More needs to be done to address the root causes that drive migration, such as poverty and instability. Without measures like a new Marshall Plan for developing countries, migration pressures will grow and wealthier nations will build higher barriers in response.
Controlled, sustainable migration is still needed by Western countries for economic reasons. But determining who is allowed, at what levels, and ensuring newcomers integrate without undermining host values, is complex with no clear answers.

Here are summaries of the selected sources:

“China’s urban-rural divide” (OECD Observer) discusses the large disparities between urban and rural areas in China in terms of income, access to services, opportunities for employment and education. It argues the divide poses economic and social challenges if not addressed.
“Along and across the Great Wall of China” (Geographical Review) provides a first-hand account of the author’s travels along multiple sections of the Great Wall, describing the construction and variations between sections.
“Censoring the internet works” (Washington Post) discusses China’s strict approach to internet censorship and argues that China’s experiences show censorship can be an effective strategy for controlling the flow of information, at least in the short term.
“Income growth, inequality and poverty reduction” (China Economic Review) examines trends in incomes, inequality and poverty across eight Chinese provinces between 1990 and 2005, finding disparities exist but that overall prosperity has lifted many out of poverty.
The Great Wall (Man) is a general history book about the Great Wall, covering its original purposes, construction over centuries, and role as a icon of China.
“Capital is back” (Quarterly Journal of Economics) analyzes wealth concentration and wealth-income ratios trends in rich countries between 1700-2010, finding rising wealth concentration since the 1980s.
“The problem of the Great Wall” (Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies) discusses interpretations and symbolism of the Great Wall in Chinese histories over the centuries.
“The era of prosperity” (China Daily) is a Chinese government newspaper editorial touting China’s economic achievements and prospects for continued growth in 2007.
“China adopts cyber security law” (Reuters) reports on China passing a cybersecurity law increasing censorship and requiring user data be stored within China, despite foreign business opposition.

Here is a summary of the provided terms:

Mahmoud Abbas is the current president of the Palestinian Authority.
The Abbasid Caliphate ruled much of the Islamic world from the 8th century to the 13th century.
King Abdullah II is the current king of Jordan.
The Acts of Union united the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.
Afghanistan has experienced war and conflict for decades, including Soviet invasion in the late 20th century and ongoing war with Taliban forces.
The details provided give context on regions, countries, ethnic groups, events, and organizations in Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and Europe. Specifically discussed are issues like borders disputes, refugees, demographic changes, religious conflicts, and independence movements.
Historical events discussed include the Arab Spring, Cold War, fall of the Berlin Wall, Israeli-Palestinian conflict, apartheid in South Africa, separatist movements, and more.
Political entities and issues summarized include the European Union, Brexit, China’s censorship and digital control, rising nationalist and anti-immigrant politics in Europe, and Islamophobia.
Demographic and social topics touched on include immigration policies, rising inequality, urbanization, changing family structures, and tensions over multiculturalism and diversity.

Here is a summary of the key points from the passages:

The aniya dialect is a language spoken in some parts of India.
Healthcare access and costs are issues discussed in several African countries like Nigeria, as well as in Hungary and the US. Infant mortality and life expectancy are also mentioned.
Hebrew is the official language of Israel.
Heather Heyer was a counter-protester killed at a white nationalist rally in Charlottesville, Virginia in 2017.
Hezbollah is a Shia political and paramilitary organization based in Lebanon that has also conducted operations in Syria.
The Himalayan Mountains are located in parts of India, Nepal, China and other countries.
Hindus make up the majority population of India. Caste systems and religious practices are discussed.
Hispanics, particularly Mexicans and Mexican-Americans, are discussed in the context of immigration and demographics in the US.
Adolf Hitler was the leader of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945.
References are made to several cities, countries and regions like Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, Hong Kong, Ivory Coast, Kashmir region, and others.
Key historical figures mentioned include Mao Zedong, Nelson Mandela, Julius Nyerere, figures from India’s independence movement, and others.
Religious, ethnic and political groups discussed include Jews, Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Kurds, Igbos, Oromo, Luhya tribes, Alawites, Hezbollah, Hamas, ISIS, etc.
border and territorial disputes mentioned include Israel-Palestine, India-Pakistan over Kashmir, Morocco-Western Sahara, Nigeria-Cameroon, Uganda-Tanzania.
Historical events referenced include the Iron Curtain, Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Iran-Iraq war, Rwandan genocide, apartheid in South Africa, Troubles in Northern Ireland.
Ardino, Calif. terror attack in 2015 that killed 53 people.
Bernie Sanders, American politician born in 1941.
São Paulo, city in Brazil with a population of over 12 million people.
“Sassenachs” referred to Saxons that invaded Scotland in the 8th century.
Satanists are mentioned but no other context is provided.
Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud has been the King of Saudi Arabia since 2015.
Saudi Arabia is discussed in relation to geopolitics in the Middle East.
Scandinavia refers likely to the Nordic countries of northern Europe.
Günter Schabowski was involved in opening the Berlin Wall in 1989.
The Schengen Area allows passport-free travel between 26 European countries.
Mike Scioli discussed but no context provided.
Second class citizens refers likely to issues of discrimination.
The Second Intifada was a Palestinian uprising against Israel from 2000-2005.
The Second Temple was a Jewish holy site located in Jerusalem.
Sectarianism discussed in relation to partition in Ireland and religious divisions.
Secularism mentioned in relation to Israel.
Topics briefly touched upon include Serbia, Shanghai, shantytowns, and “Shia crescent” but without much context provided in the given summaries.

Here is a summary of the information provided:

This text provides contact information for Simon & Schuster regarding various topics:

For purchases, contact Simon & Schuster Special Sales at 1-866-506-1949 or business@simonandschuster.com.
The Simon & Schuster Speakers Bureau can bring authors to live events. For more information or to book an event, contact 1-866-248-3049 or visit www.simonspeakers.com.

It then provides publication details: the book cover design and photographs used, Library of Congress cataloging information, ISBN numbers, and credits for photos and maps used within the book.

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The Age of Walls - Tim Marshall